English has more than its fair share of all three of these things. Let’s have a look at some of the most troublesome examples of tricky words and punctuation in English, and look at ways to avoid making those mistakes in the future.

Apostrophe plus ‘s’, or no apostrophe plus ‘s’?

This is an age-old concern, when do I use the apostrophe plus an ‘s’, and when do I not use the apostrophe?

Think carefully about what apostrophes do. Most of the time they replace a missing letter, or they express possession.

About the only exception to that rule that you need to know is when you are using ‘its’ for possessions. As you will see here, there is no apostrophe.

Why?

Because if you did, it would be confused with the abbreviation of ‘it is’, when the apostrophe represents the missing ‘i’. Hence. ‘it’s’.

What is its name?

It’s really nice.

It’s true, then, that you would use an apostrophe plus ‘s’ in all other cases where there is a missing letter or a case of possessive. For example:

Mum’s coming over later.

That is mum’s car.

Now, of course, in context there is no way that you could confuse the meaning of the first ‘mum’s’ = ‘mum is’, and the second = the car belongs to mum.

Who or whom?

This one can cause a few issues, but it all boils down to whether you what to use a subject pronoun or object pronoun.

In short, if the word is replacing a subject pronoun (I, you, he, she, it, we, they), then the correct word is ‘who’. If the word is replacing the object pronoun (me, you, him, her, it, us, them) then the word you are looking for is ‘whom’. Here are some examples:

He is the man who lives next door. (Who is he?)

He is chatting to a girl whom he knows from work. (He is chatting to her)

But in reality, whom is nearly always replaced with ‘who’, and this is accepted practice, so the second sentence above could be:

He is chatting to a girl who he knows from work.

Affect or effect?

This is a really easy one to solve. ‘Affect’ is the verb, and ‘effect’ is the noun. That’s it! Here are some examples:

How does working there affect your health? (verb)

Working there has had many negative effects on my health. (noun)

Can I start a sentence with ‘and’ or ‘but’?

Yes, of course, you can. Even in formal writing. It’s interesting that this seems to have become a rule, because it has never, in fact, been a rule. Don’t start every other sentence with these words, but every now and again it’s fine. It’s also quite literary too, so outlawing it would basically deny nearly every great writer there has ever been in the English language.

‘And what are you reading, Miss –?’ ‘Oh! It is only a novel!’ replies the young lady: while she lays down her book with affected indifference or momentary shame.

Jane Austen, Northanger Abbey

‘But the Emperor has nothing on at all!’ cried a little child.

Hans Christian Anderson, The Emperor’s New Clothes

Should I use an ‘Oxford comma’?

An ‘Oxford comma’, so-called because it is a rule of the Oxford University Press, is when you use a comma before the final ‘and’ in a list. Here is a simple example:

I like to eat pizza, pasta, fish, and chips.

Here the Oxford comma is seen after the word ‘fish’. The other commas in the list are known as serial commas and are always correct.

The problem with omitting the Oxford comma is that it can change the meaning of what you are trying to say.

I like to eat pizza, pasta, fish and chips.

So, is that three different types of food (pizza, pasta, fish and chips), or four different types of food (pizza, pasta, fish [on its own] and chips [on their own])?

The point is that, by omitting the Oxford comma, you can make a sentence ambiguous. So it is always much better to use it because it leaves no doubt that those items are separate. And it is far from only the Oxford University Press that prescribes this comma. The vast majority of style guides do that.

So, should you use an Oxford comma? Yes!

When do I use a hyphen?

A hyphen should be used to connect two words that are acting together as one word.

That is nearly always true in adjectives that are comprised of two words. For example:

Easy-going person, self-respecting professional, old-fashioned shirt etc.

However, do not use the hyphen when the first word is an adverb:

Highly prized award, rarely seen animal.

However, when it comes to nouns, there are just no rules. The tradition is that these words tend to start out as two words, slowly evolve to include a hyphen over time, and eventually become one word. Who makes this decision? That’s a complicated question: too complicated to answer here.

The best advice with nouns? Check a dictionary. But even then you may find some differences of opinion

But here are some more examples of when you should use a hyphen:

He is a 23-year-old. (to express ages)

Twenty-one, fifty-seven (numbers from twenty-one to ninety-nine)

Anti-inflammatory, self-absorbed, ex-girlfriend (with some prefixes, including always with self and ex)

My uncle had a concealed-weapons permit. (to avoid ambiguity. Removing the hyphen here could change the meaning)

The post Confusing English Words and Punctuation Rules appeared first on Linguix Blog.

We’ve set up a list of comma rules, and examples of embarrassing mistakes that will help you to enhance your writing style and avoid misunderstanding.

Rule #1. You need a comma before coordinating conjunction linking two independent clauses

A group of words that can easily serve as a separate sentence is called an independent clause. When you want to combine two such independent clauses in one sentence using a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, so, etc.), there should be a comma before this coordinating conjunction.

I went to the mall to score new boots, but I failed to find my size.

Both clauses in this sentence could stand alone as separate sentences. Coordinating conjunction but combines them into one sentence, so we should use a comma.

Rule #2. A comma is used to separate items

When you have a sentence with a list of items, you should separate them with commas.

John was obsessed with parties, girls, and sports cars.

If you have such a queue, you should use a comma to separate it. However, there are slight differences in comma usage in different English styles. Look at the example above, see a comma before “and”? It is called “Oxford comma,” and some styles require its usage or not.

For example, the style guide for newspaper reporters called AP Style does not require its use. However, in American and Canadian English, it is a common thing to use the Oxford comma. So, if you are writing in American English, it is better to stick with it.

Here is what can happen if you fail to follow this rule:

Rule #3. A comma is used to join dependent and independent clauses

If in your sentence there are two clauses, and one depends on another and follows it, you should not separate them with a comma. But in the case when a dependent clause stands at the beginning of a sentence, it is right to put a comma before the clause it depends on.

Examples:

You should read more if you’re going to become a journalist. (The dependent clause follows the one it depends on, so no comma is needed.)

If you’re going to become a journalist, you should read more. (The dependent clause starts the sentence, so the comma is needed after it).

Rule #4. You should use commas after introductory words

Sometimes you need an introductory word (“however”) or group of words (“on the other hand”) to start your sentence. There might be different reasons for it, including providing more information and preparing the reader to the main part of a sentence. The rule is that a comma should follow such words and group of words.

Finally, I had enough money to buy this car.

Tip: it is common to use adverbs as introductory words, and lots of them end in “ly.” So, if you have a word ending in “ly” at the beginning of your sentence, be sure to put a comma after it.

Rule #5. Use a comma in sentences beginning with “Yes” or “No”

This one is a quite simple rule. If you have “yes” or “no” at the beginning of a sentence, you need a comma after them. Easy.

Yes, I’d like to have some more ice cream.

Rule #6. A comma is used when you need to interrupt a sentence to provide more information

When your sentence is interrupted by a phrase that is not grammatically connected with it, you need to set this phrase off with commas.

This car I told you about, which had this nice built-in audio system, was bought yesterday by some banker.

It is really important to follow this rule.

Rule #7. You should use a comma with direct quotatio

It is a simple rule many people often forget to follow. When you see a direct quotation, be sure to use a comma.

“I’d rather die than accept this job offer,” she told her friend.

Exact punctuation here is a matter of style, similar to the Oxford comma. In the American and Canadian English, it is common to put the comma inside the quotation mark, while the British style accepts placing the comma after it.

Rule #8. Commas separate elements in an address

When you are writing an exact address with building number, road, city, and state, it is correct to separate these elements with commas.

Our new office is located at 350 Lincoln Road, Miami Beach, FL 33139.

Rule #9. Use a comma to separate elements in dates

The same as with addresses, when you have a sentence with weekday, month, day, and year mentioned, comma rules tell that you need to separate them.

Sunday, March 3, 2019, was a day we’ve finally launched our Chrome and Firefox browser extensions.

Tip: you need a comma after the date as well, it will separate it from the rest of the sentence. However, if your date consists only of day and month, you don’t need to use a comma as a separator.

Rule #10. You need to use commas with titles

If you write a person’s name followed by his or her title, you need to put one comma before it, and one after to separate it from the remainder of the sentence.

Kimberly Johnson, a TV host, is now running for a major in her home town.

Rule #11. You need commas in numbers as well

When you have a number longer than four digits, use commas to separate them into groups of three. You should count three digits from the right.

Good: 50,000

Bad: 55,000,00

Rule #12. Use commas with negations

If your sentence contains a negation, i.e. “the contradiction or denial of something” as dictionaries explain it, you need to set it off with commas.

I went to Barcelona, not Madrid, for my vacation this year.

Tip: you still need a comma even if the negation occurs at the end of your sentence.

Rule #13. Always use a comma for direct address

When you need to address someone or something in a sentence directly, it is correct to put a comma before it.

You should allow more privacy on Facebook, Mark.

Look at what will happen if you fail to follow this rule:

Rule #14. Use commas to separate coordinate adjectives

If two adjectives independently modify a noun, they are called coordinate adjectives, and you need to separate them with a comma.

If you can put “and” between adjectives or rearrange them, and the sentence will still make sense, then you have coordinate adjectives and need to separate them with a comma.

Travel is a fun, exciting way to spend your time. (You can add “and” or rearrange adjectives with no harm to the sense of a sentence.)

Rule #15. Appositive adjective require commas

In English, there is such a thing as an appositive adjective. It is used to emphasize the description of a noun or pronoun and follows them. You need to use commas to set them off.

Hugo Boss, the type of perfume he preferred, was the one she always loved.

You can meet such constructions in fiction or academic writing. It is undesirable to use appositive adjectives in your writing as they make it wordy and harder to read.

The post 15 Comma Rules You Should Know To Make Your Writing Better appeared first on Linguix Blog.